Jerry Ramie

Understanding and incorporating the latest standards into early testing and design is key to market success.

Most major electronics manufacturers are concerned with the marketing of consumer, commercial, medical, or light industrial products in the European Union (EU). To apply the CE mark, the EU's new approach directives mandate new and expanded requirements for regulatory compliance for most electrical and electronic products.

To meet these requirements, the EMC Directive (89/336EEC) references harmonized EMC standards. The newest versions of many of these standards, coming into effect in 2001, affect a vast array of products, most of which will have a much-increased number of tests applied. This article examines these emerging standards and their implications for manufacturers.

New harmonized standards or new versions of harmonized standards being referenced this year include:

• EN 50082-1:1997 Generic Immunity Standard for Residential, Commercial, and Light Industrial Locations (7/1/01).
• EN 50130-4:1995 Immunity Requirements for Components of Fire, Intruder, and Social Alarm Systems (1/1/01).
• EN 55011:1998 Emissions Tests for Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) Equipment (1/1/01).
• EN 55022:1998 Information Technology Equipment (ITE) Emissions Testing Requirements (delayed until 8/1/03).
• EN 55024:1998 (ITE) Immunity Testing Requirements (7/1/01).
• EN 61000-3-2:1995 Power-Line Harmonics (1/1/01) + Amendment A14 (optional from 1/1/01).
• EN 61000-3-3:1995 Power-Line Flicker (1/1/01).
• EN 61326-1:1997+A1 (1998) Emissions and Immunity for Equipment for Measurement Control and Laboratory Use (7/1/01).

These new standards (or new versions) add a number of tests that have never before been required by most EMC Directive harmonized standards, including:

• Emissions of power-line harmonic currents (in EN 61000-3-2:1995).
• Emissions of power-line voltage fluctuations and flicker (in EN 61000-3-3:1995).
• Conducted emissions on telecom ports (only for ITE, in EN 55022:1998).
• Radiated RF immunity using modulated fields (basic test standard IEC 61000-4-3).
• Surge immunity (basic test standard IEC 61000-4-5).
• Conducted RF immunity (basic test standard IEC 61000-4-6).
• Power-frequency magnetic fields (basic test standard IEC 61000-4-8).
• Power dips and interruptions (basic test standard IEC 61000-4-11).

An understanding of the requirements imposed by conformity to these standards is essential. It is important to incorporate these requirements in test plans at the design stage to ensure that new products conform to recently mandated tests. Failure to grasp the implications these new and updated standards have on products can impede access to critical markets.

Background

Currently, products bound for the EU must conform to the essential requirements of the EMC Directive. Table I shows the harmonized standards for emissions, and Table II shows those for immunity. For regulatory compliance testing, most manufacturers want to design products so that they comply with standards for both Europe and the United States. Therefore, to combine tests, radiated emissions are now typically tested in accordance with CISPR 16-1:1993 methods, but using the frequency ranges specified in 47 CFR 15.33 (FCC). Many commercial manufacturers now test for combined radiated emissions from 30 MHz to 5 GHz, reflecting the FCC guidelines. Some telecommunications equipment manufacturers test up to 10 GHz, using GR-1089-CORE for guidance.

Type of EM Disturbance	New or Revised Harmonized EMC Standards with a Date of Withdrawal During 2001	Basic Test Method Called Up by the Harmonized Standard
Radiated	EN 55022:1998 (delayed)	The method is in the standard.
	EN 55011:1998	The method is in the standard.
	EN 61326-1:1998	CISPR 16-1 and -2
Conducted on mains ports	EN 55022:1998 (delayed)	The method is in the standard.
	EN 55011:1998	The method is in the standard.
	EN 61326-1:1998	CISPR 16-1 and -2
Conducted on telecom ports	EN 55022:1998 (delayed)	The method is in the standard.
Mains harmonics	EN 61000-3-2:1995 (Amendment A14 optional)	The method is in the standard.
Mains voltage flicker and in-rushcurrent at switch-on	EN 61000-3-3:1995	The method is in the standard.

Table I. This table indicates the major harmonized standards for emissions. These harmonized standards then call up some of the basic (utility) standards.

Type of EM Disturbance	New or Revised Harmonized EMC Standards with a Date of Withdrawal During 2001	Basic Test Method Called Up by the Harmonized Standard
Radiated RF (modulated field)	EN 55024:1998	All EN 61000-4-3; Note: Uses modulated RF fields unlike the IEC 801-3 unmodulated fields employed by EN 50082-1:1992
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Conducted RF (modulated field)	EN 55024:1998	All EN 61000-4-6
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Electrostatic discharge wave	EN 55024:1998	EN 55024:1998 All EN 61000-4-2; Note: Uses a faster wave shape, ± test voltages, and adds contact discharge and indirect discharge tests to the IEC 801-2 method employed by EN 50082-1:1992
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Fast transient bursts	EN 55024:1998	EN 55024:1998 All EN 61000-4-4; Note: Essentially the same as IEC 801-4 employed by EN 50082-1:1992
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Surge	EN 55024:1998	All EN 61000-4-5
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Power frequency magnetic field	EN 55024:1998	All EN 61000-4-8
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996
	EN 50082-1:1997
Supply dips, interruptions, and variations	EN 55024:1998	All EN 61000-4-11
	EN 61326-1:1998
	EN 50130-4:1996

Table II. This table indicates the major new or revised harmonized standards for immunity. The standards call up a selection of the basic test standards in the IEC/EN 61000-4-x series. Compliance to the EMC Directive cannot be declared using the IEC/EN 61000-4-x series of basic test standards. Rather, product standards or generic standards, which are harmonized, must be used.

Performance Criteria

When performing immunity (susceptibility) testing on actual products, the definition of a failure becomes important. To ensure consistency in this regard, performance criteria are stated as:

• Type A: Performance during the test does not fall below a level set by manufacturer (usually normal specification).
• Type B: Performance is normal after the test, with no loss of stored data or change in operational mode. Performance degradation is allowed during the test.
• Type C: A and B criteria apply, but normal performance after the test requires operator intervention using normal controls.
• Type D: Nonrecovering failure (damage).

IEC 61000-4-5 (1995-02)

This standard requires the coupling of the widely used combination wave onto the power lines, and sometimes onto the input/output (I/O) lines of electrical and electronic equipment connected to the ac power distribution system. The test severity level and coupling type are governed by the generic or product harmonized standard that applies to the product. The level and coupling type are generally dictated by the installation class of the product being tested. Many commercial products fall within Class 2 or Class 3 (without cabling runs outside the building). These products may be subjected to power line and unbalanced I/O surges of 0.5 or 1 kV, line-to-line, and 1 or 2 kV, line-to-earth. If a product has an unbalanced long-distance bus (>3 m long) or a balanced circuit, it can also be tested with 1 or 2 kV, line-to-earth. It is important to refer to the product or generic standard or to Annex A and Table A.1 in IEC 61000-4-5 (1995-02) for guidance on choosing the correct installation class and identifying proper test levels and coupling methods.

IEC 61000-4-6 (1996-04)

Nearly all products have wires for power or I/O interfacing, and these lines are exposed to continuous sources of radio- frequency (RF) interference. Licensed radio and TV stations, land and air mobile services, cellular telephony, local-area network (LAN), and wide-area network systems are all subject to RF voltages induced onto their lines and must address concerns about immunity. To simulate the effect these phenomena can exert, this conducted immunity standard requires testing at 1, 3, or 10 V electromagnetic force (EMF). The test level is determined by the harmonized standard that applies to the product. Many commercial products can be tested at Level 2 (3 V EMF) or Level 3 (10 V EMF) using a coupler-decoupler network (CDN) on the power lines and on other common types of I/O lines such as coaxial, twisted pair, audio, D-sub-9 and D-sub-15.

 

Figure 1. A level-setting procedure conducted on the mains 3-wire coupler-decoupler network.

Before the test can be run, IEC 61000-4-6 stipulates a level-setting procedure. The control computer (or pencil-wielding technician) makes a drive table consisting of the frequency (in 1% steps) and the signal-generator output level (in dBm). The output of the signal generator is adjusted to achieve the desired reading on the power meter or oscilloscope. The photograph in Figure 1 shows the level-setting procedure being conducted on the mains 3-wire (M3) CDN, the most common type used for power lines. Note that each side of the CDN must be fitted with an appropriate calibration adapter to establish the common-mode reference point 30 mm from the CDN and 30 mm above the ground plane. These adapters are removed after the level-setting procedure, and the drive table is then played back with a dwell time at each frequency long enough for the equipment under test (EUT) to respond. During the test, the EUT is monitored for its functional performance.

For some high-speed I/O lines (10/100Base-T or higher), CDNs will not allow the line to function when it is connected. In these cases, one of two clamp-injection techniques can be used. An electromagnetic clamp offers front-to-back isolation from its ferrite decoupling section, but at a higher cost than a bulk current injection (BCI) probe. Most test laboratories worldwide have BCI probes available because these probes are widely used in MIL-STD work. Both methods require monitoring of the injected current to ensure that the EUT is not overtested. Both methods also require that the auxiliary equipment (AE) side of the clamp be decoupled with a separate ferrite decoupler. All lines touching either the EUT or AE sides of the setup must be decoupled with additional CDNs or ferrite decouplers.

IEC 61000-4-8 (2001-03)

Most commercial products available today are connected to or used near a low-voltage (LV) ac power distribution network. These products are subjected to 50-Hz magnetic fields relating to their proximity to nearby transformers and distribution panels. IEC 61000-4-8 differentiates between long-term, steady magnetic fields and short-term (and much higher) fault-condition magnetic fields. Levels are determined by the appropriate harmonized standard. Typical commercial products can be tested to Level 2 (3 A/m) or Level 3 (10 A/m) for continuous fields.

Many products can be tested within the 1-m-sq induction coil by the immersion method. A single-turn coil of this dimension yields a 3-dB uniform magnetic field for products up to 0.6 x 0.6 x 0.5 m tall. If two coils are connected in series and separated by 0.8 m, the resultant solenoid will yield a uniform field for EUT sizes up to 0.6 x 0.6 x 1.0 m tall. Larger floor-standing EUTs may require custom coils that return current through a ground plane so that the uniform field extends down to the plane.

All setups for IEC 61000-4-8 (2001-03) require a small, three-axis magnetometer to verify the field strength in the center of the coil. Many of these meters are calibrated in microteslas, with 1.26 mT = 1 A/m.

IEC 61000-4-11 (2001-03)

Many believe that harmonic distortion is the greatest power problem we face. However, according to Robert Gilleskie of San Diego Gas & Electric Company, "Very brief voltage sags, some down to only 90% of nominal, and lasting as little as a tenth of a second, are by far the more troublesome."¹ For electrical and electronic equipment connected to the low-voltage mains, IEC 61000-4-11 defines the immunity test methods and levels for voltage dips, short interruptions, and voltage variations. This standard applies to electrical and electronic equipment with rated input currents of 16 A per phase, single or three phase. (It excludes dc and 400-Hz networks.) Voltage dips and interruptions are caused either by faults in the network or installation, or by sudden, large changes in load. These phenomena are random and not always abrupt. Voltage dips simulate the effects of sudden voltage change; however, rotating machines can act as generators when spinning down, preventing rapid voltage changes in some installations. Hence, the voltage variation tests require gradual changes in voltage.

When following the standards route to compliance, the test levels applied are set by the generic or product harmonized standard. Voltage dips (short interruptions) may be delivered with sags down to 0, 40, and 70% of nominal rated voltage, with durations from 0.5 periods (cycles) to 50 periods (1 second at 50 Hz). The EUT can be subjected to combinations of test levels and durations with a series of three dips separated by a minimum of 10 seconds, as determined by the appropriate standard. These interruptions occur at the zero crossings for most tests, but other phase angles could be imposed if considered critical.

The test generator must be able to deliver 1.4 times the actual in-rush demanded from the EUT, or 500 A maximum. The EUT must not draw more than 70% of the actual in-rush capability of the test generator, which must be capable of an output current of 16 A rms per phase at rated voltage. The generator should supply the following voltages and currents for at least 5 seconds:

• Voltage change at 100% output (0–16 A) < 5%.
• Voltage change at 70% output (0–23 A) < 7%.
• Voltage change at 40% output (0–40 A) < 10%.
• Abrupt load-change rise (fall) time (100-W load): 1–5 ms.

The standard shows a dual-transformer circuit with solid-state switching as representative of this type of test generator. Such a circuit could switch at any phase angle and not limit the in-rush current or the output bandwidth. The generator's implied bandwidth from the load-change validation test is 200 kHz–1 MHz, precluding the use of any stand-alone programmable electronic ac power source for this type of generator. Usually, a dual-transformer source controller is connected in series with the output of an appropriate 50-Hz power source, and this controller sets the output voltages and durations according to the standard.

If required under the harmonized standard, the optional voltage variation part of the standard requires that the generator supply nominal rated voltage to the EUT, then execute a 2-second linear ramp down to 40% (or 0%) of rated voltage, hold at the reduced voltage for 1 second, then ramp back up to nominal voltage. This series is repeated three times with a minimum 10-second interval between events. The EUT should remain safe during and after the completion of the test.

EN 61000-3-2:1995

This standard applies to electrical and electronic equipment drawing up to 16 A per phase from a public low-voltage distribution system. With the increasing prevalence of electronic loads, the problems they create are becoming more widespread. Most troublesome is the tendency of low-order odd harmonics of an input current waveform to add in three-phase wye distribution transformers, particularly in the neutral line. High neutral harmonic currents can damage utility equipment, interfere with accurate metering of power consumed, or even ignite fires. The existing equipment classifications are:

• Class A: Balanced three-phase and all other equipment not classified below.
• Class B: Portable tools.
• Class C: Lighting equipment and dimmers.
• Class D: Special wave-shape equipment.

On January 1, 2001, the Official Journal of the European Community published amendment A14 to EN 61000-3-2:1995. A14 is optional for the next three years, by which time the 1995 version should have been withdrawn and replaced with a new standard incorporating the A14 modifications. This amendment implemented several changes, including a new system for equipment classification. Equipment classifications under Amendment A14 are:

• Class A: Balanced three-phase, permanent tools, appliances, audio equipment, incandescent-light dimmers, and all other equipment not classified below.
• Class B: Portable tools.
• Class C: Lighting equipment (except incandescent dimmers).
• Class D: Computers, monitors, TV receivers (<600 W single phase).

Amendment A14 provides manufacturers some relief if their products previously fell under the old Class D, special wave-shape equipment. Before A14, manufacturers were required to meet both the absolute and relative harmonic current limits. Many manufacturers can now retest to Class A, which should be a much easier test to pass. For computer, monitor, and TV manufacturers, however, this amendment does not offer any relief. These products typically must be outfitted with power-factor-corrected power supplies in order to pass the test.

Classifications and measurement methods outlined in A14 are easier to understand and apply. Under A14, maximum total harmonic distortion measurement speeds up testing, and limits apply to phase rather than neutral currents.

Some manufacturers will not have to test to EN 61000-3-2 at all. It does not apply to products that consume less than 75 W or to professional equipment that draws more than 1000 W. An exception to the 75-W limit is lighting equipment, for which the lower power limit is for Class C only. A14 adds new harmonic requirements for lighting equipment rated less than 25 W. Other products exempted from the limits of EN 61000-3-2:1995 include:

• Professional equipment (used by workers at work) drawing more than 1000 W.
• Equipment that consumes more than 16 A per phase or is powered from medium-voltage (MV, above 1 kV rms) or high-voltage (above 32 kV rms) lines.
• Equipment used on a site that has its own dedicated MV-to-LV transformer (such as most high-rise buildings, hospitals, or factories) and not intended to be connected to a public supply (public is defined as shared between more than one organization or household).
• Professional equipment that doesn't meet the limits can still be supplied, as long as the user seeks permission from the supply authority before connecting. Supply authorities could require additional tests or improvements to the customers' supply networks.

Despite these exemptions, equipment that falls within the scope of EN 61000-3-2:1995 (with or without A14) must still be documented on the declaration of conformity.

EN 61000-3-3:1995

When products are connected to the nonzero impedance of an ac mains network, any variation in the amplitude of the current drawn will result in a corresponding variation in the luminance of typical incandescent lighting. This flickering of the lighting level is now regulated by EN 61000-3-3:1995, and this standard applies to electrical and electronic equipment drawing up to 16 A per phase from the public low-voltage distribution system (220–250 V ac, 50 Hz line-to-neutral) The standard does not apply to equipment running on public LV supplies of more than 250 V rms phase to neutral or on frequencies other than 50 Hz nominal. Short-term flicker (P^_st) is the flicker severity evaluated over a short period (about 10 minutes), where P^_st = 1 is the limit for human irritability. Long-term flicker (P^_lt) is the flicker severity evaluated over a long period (about 2 hours), using successive P^_st values. The simulated power distribution network must be in accordance with IEC 60725 (1981-01). To simulate the nonzero impedances of the phase and neutral lines, the power source must exhibit these impedances:

Z^_A = 0.24 + j 0.15 W @ 50 Hz (phase)
Z^_N = 0.16 + j 0.10 W @ 50 Hz (neutral),

where j refers to inductive reactance.

A cautionary note: Many manufacturers (and test labs) have overlooked the fact that EN 61000-3-3 applies limits to the switch-on in-rush current, which means that most equipment must be tested, if only for switch-on. If possible, specific test conditions outlined in the standard should be used for:

• Cookers
• Hot plates
• Baking ovens
• Grills
• Combined oven/grills
• Microwave ovens
• Lighting equipment
• Washing machines
• Clothes dryers
• Refrigerators
• Copiers, laser printers
• Vacuum cleaners
• Food mixers
• Portable tools
• Hair dryers
• Consumer electronics
• Water heaters

EN 61000-3-3 also allows some exemptions, basically as for EN 61000-3-2, but without the 75-W cutoff or the exemption for professional equipment consuming over 1 kW.

EN 55022:1998

Computers and telecommunications equipment are subject to testing in accordance with EN 55022:1998 as of August 1, 2003. As with the former standard, EN 55022:1995, the new version requires radiated emissions testing to 1 GHz, independent of internal clock speeds. EN 55022 does not require testing to 10 GHz. However, many manufacturers that use this method should extend the frequency range to 5 or 10 GHz to meet FCC or GR-1089-CORE clock-related frequency limits. This standard has been delayed, and ongoing work is being done to clarify the test methods required, especially the calibration of the impedance stabilization networks (ISNs).² The EMC Test Labs Association has published a guidance document.³

 

Figure 2. Conducted common-mode disturbance at telecommunications ports (Class A and B).

As before, line impedance stabilization networks are used for conducted emissions testing on the power lines of the EUT. The major difference in the new version is the requirement that ISNs are to be used on telecom ports to set their common-mode impedance to 150 W. The standard defines a telecom port as any analog or digital lines connecting to the telecom network, including LAN or coaxial ports. A new conducted-emissions common-mode current or voltage limit (ranging from 150 kHz to 30 MHz) is placed on these lines. The Class A and B limits are shown in Figure 2.

If possible, single- and twin-pair cables should be connected through the ISN specified in section 9.5.2-C1. CAT-3 and CAT-5 cables are routed through the ISNs specified in sections 9.5.2-C2 and -C3. Compliance with the common-mode current or voltage limit is required, and multiple-pair bundles must conform to common-mode voltage and current limits. The common-mode voltage is measured using a capacitive voltage-probing fixture, and the common-mode currents are measured with a traditional monitor current probe. The common-mode impedance of the bundle must be controlled with suitable ferrites and verified with an injection- and monitor-current probe pair.

For coaxial cable, Figure C.1 of the standard allows the use of the S-1 CDN called for in IEC 61000-4-6 (1996-04), so many companies are likely to have one for meeting the requirements of that standard. In this case, a monitor current probe should be used to measure the common-mode currents. If the current measurement is beyond the limit, however, a voltage measurement is allowed. A 50–150-W adapter as called for in IEC 61000-4-6 (1996-04) can be used (with a correction of 9.6 dB) as shown in C.1.2 to measure common-mode voltage on the shield.

Other Standards

Other standards issued recently, including EN 55011:1998, EN 55024:1998, and EN 61326-1:1997, address the important markets of the industrial, scientific, medical, information technology, and measurement and control industries. EN 51030-4:1997 addresses immunity for fire, intruder, and alarm systems. These standards reference many of the basic standards mentioned and should be consulted for guidance for the testing requirements of a particular product covered within their scope.

It is important to note that the new 1997 edition of the generic immunity standard EN 50082-1 has changed its test method for measuring radiated immunity. Instead of using the unmodulated-field test that EN 50082-1:1992 used to specify (using IEC 801-3 for the basic test standard), EN 50082-1:1997 now specifies a modulated field (using EN 61000-4-3 for the basic test standard). The modulated field increases the effective peak test level by almost 6 dB. This is especially bad news for analog circuits and other devices that tend to demodulate the modulation. From 2001, many products for which EN 50082-1 continues to apply could face serious problems passing the modulated-field radiated immunity test in this new version of the generic immunity standard.

Another test that has become much tougher in the 1997 issue of EN 50082-1 is electrostatic discharge. The 1992 edition employed the IEC 801-2 basic test method, whereas the 1997 issue uses IEC 61000-4-2 instead. This method uses a different human body model with a much faster-rising leading edge to its waveform (between 0.7 and 1 nanosecond, instead of 5 nanoseconds as in IEC 801-2). Faster rise times generally mean more likelihood of interference occurring. In addition, IEC 61000-4-2 tests with both positive and negative voltages, with contact discharge as well as the traditional air discharge. It also tests with indirect-contact discharges to nearby horizontal and vertical reference planes.

Many products to which the generic standard EN 50082-1 used to apply, but during 2001 must migrate to new product-specific harmonized immunity standards (e.g., EN 55024, EN 61326-1, EN 50130-4), could also suffer serious problems with the IEC 61000-4-3 modulated-field or IEC 61000-4-2 ESD tests, even if they had no problems with the corresponding tests under EN 50082-1:1992.

Conclusion

With the EU representing one of the largest integrated, regulated markets in the world and with continuing pressure on manufacturers to get to all markets first with new products, the importance of a regulatory strategy is greater than ever. Such a strategy might encompass early adoption of good EMC engineering practices during the design and product specification phase, with ongoing EMC validation at the subassembly and finished-product stages. A single, high-quality design, quickly placed on all markets, can often make the difference between industry dominance and industry extermination.

The burdens for EMC testing (and early design validation) are not impossible and, of course, apply to the competition as well. Meeting the requirements set forth in international standards results in a better-quality and more-reliable product. These testing standards only impact time to market or windows of opportunity if they are ignored, rather than managed. With so much at stake, a clear regulatory strategy makes the most sense.

References

1. RJ Gilleskie et al, "The Practical Significance of Electrical Harmonics,"Cal Lab 7, no. 3 (2000): 23–26.

2. K Armstrong and T Williams, "EMC Testing Part 2—Conducted Emissions," EMC Compliance Journal, no. 34 (2001): 22–32. Available on the Internet at http://www.compliance-club.com.

3. T Williams, EMCTLA Technical Guidance Note #42—Emissions Tests on Telecom Ports as per CISPR 22 (EN 55022) and Addendum 1, (Romsey, UK: EMC Test Labs Association, 2001). Available on the Internet at http://www.emctla.org.

Bibliography

CISPR 16-1:1993-08. "Specification for Radio Disturbance and Immunity Measuring Apparatus and Methods—Part 1: Radio Disturbance and Immunity Measuring Apparatus." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1993.

Code of Federal Regulations, 47 CFR 15.33.

Code of Federal Regulations, 47 CFR 18.101.

EN 50082-1:1997."Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Generic Immunity Standard for Residential, Commercial and Light Industrial Environments." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 50130-4:1995. "Alarm Systems—Part 4. Electromagnetic Compatibility Product Family Standard: Immunity Requirements for Components of Fire, Intruder, and Social Alarm Systems." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 55011:1998. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Emissions from Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) Equipment." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 55022:1998. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Emissions from Information Technology Equipment (ITE)." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 55024:1998. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Immunity of Information Technology Equipment (ITE)." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 61000-3-2:1995, 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 3: Limits—Section 2: Limits for Harmonic Current Emissions." The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), Brussels.

EN 61000-3-3:1995, 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 3: Limits—Section 3: Limitation of Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker in Low-Voltage Supply Systems." CENELEC, Brussels.

EN 61326-1:1997. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Emissions and Immunity for Equipment for Measurement, Control, and Laboratory Use." CENELEC, Brussels.

GR-1089-CORE, Issue 1. "Electromagnetic Compatibility and Electrical Safety—Generic Criteria for Network Telecommunications Equipment." Bell Communications Research Inc., December 1996.

IEC 60725 (1981-01), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Considerations on Reference Impedances for Use in Determining the Disturbance Characteristics of Household Appliances and Similar Electrical Equipment." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1981.

IEC 61000-4-2 (1999-05), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 2: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Electrostatic Discharge Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1999.

IEC 61000-4-3 (1998-11), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4-3: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Radiated, Radio-Frequency, Electromagnetic Field Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1998.

IEC 61000-4-4 (1995-01), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Section 4: Electrical Fast Transient/Burst Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1995.

IEC 61000-4-5 (1995-02), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Section 5: Surge Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1995.

IEC 61000-4-6 (1996-04), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Section 6: Immunity to Conducted Disturbances, Induced by Radio-Frequency Fields." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 1996.

IEC 61000-4-8 (2001-03), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4-8: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Power Frequency Magnetic Field Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 2001.

IEC 61000-4-9 (2001-03), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4-9: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Pulse Magnetic Field Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 2001.

IEC 61000-4-10 (2001-03), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4-10: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Damped Oscillatory Magnetic Field Immunity Test." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 2001.

IEC 61000-4-11 (2001-03), 1st ed. "Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 4: Testing and Measurement Techniques—Section 11: Voltage Dips, Short Interruptions and Voltage Variations Immunity Tests." International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, 2001.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Todd Robinson (CKC Laboratories), Mike Heckrotte (PrecisionCal), and Ralph Cole (Teradyne) in the preparation of this article.

Jerry Ramie is vice president of marketing for Compliance Systems Corp. He is a 20-year veteran of the regulatory compliance, EMC, and RF/microwave instrumentation businesses, with experience in EMC from Eaton Corp., ARC Technical Resources Inc., and Compliance Systems. He can be reached at 408-263-6486 or on the Internet at http://www.compliancesys.com.

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